Identification and metabolomic characterization of potent anti-MRSA phloroglucinol derivatives from Dryopteris crassirhizoma Nakai (Polypodiaceae)

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been used to treat infectious diseases and could offer potential drug leads. This study evaluates the antimicrobial activities from commercially sourced Nakai (Polypodiaceae) whose authenticity was confirmed by DNA barcoding based on the ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase ( ) gene. Powdered rhizomes were sequentially extracted using hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol at ambient temperature. The dried extracts at different concentrations were tested for antimicrobial activities against , , , methicillin-resistant (MRSA), and . extracts exhibited significant antimicrobial activities only against MRSA (minimum inhibitory concentration: 3.125 μg/ml hexane extract). Activity-led fractionations of and characterization by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) targeted a fraction (A3), with two anti-MRSA phloroglucinol derivatives, flavaspidic acid AB and norflavaspidic acid AB-being greatly enriched in the latter. The impact of A3 on MRSA cells was examined using untargeted metabolomic analysis and compared to that of other established antibiotics (all treatments normalized to MIC at 6 h). This suggested that norflavaspidic acid AB had distinctive effects, one of which involved targeting bioenergetic transformation, metabolism, and particularly acetyl-CoA, on MRSA cells. No cytotoxicity was observed for the norflavaspidic acid AB-enriched fraction against murine HepG2 cells. This study requires further experimental validation but can have indicated a naturally available compound that could help counter the threat of clinically relevant strains with antibiotic resistance.