Temporal Shifts in Flower-Visiting Butterfly Communities and Their Floral Resources along a Vegetation Type Altered by Anthropogenic Factors

Habitat disturbance driven by human activities poses a major threat to biodiversity and can disrupt ecological interactions. Butterfly–plant mutualisms represent an ideal model system to study such anthropogenic impacts, as butterflies exhibit intimate dependencies on larval host plants and adult nectar sources, rendering them highly sensitive to habitat changes affecting the availability of these floral resources. This study examined flower-visiting butterfly communities and their associations with flowering plants in a landscape altered by anthropogenic factors in central Mexico. The study area encompassed a mosaic of vegetation types, including native juniper forests, agricultural lands, and introduced eucalyptus plantations, representing different degrees of human-induced habitat modification. Monthly surveys were conducted over a single year, covering both rainy and dry seasons, to analyze butterfly and plant diversity, community composition, and interactions. Results showed the highest diversity in juniper forests, followed by eucalyptus and agricultural sites. Seasonal turnover was the primary driver of community changes, with habitat-based segregation persisting within seasons. Butterfly diversity strongly correlated with flower abundance, while plant richness played a secondary role. SIMPER and indicator species analyses identified key taxa contributing to compositional dissimilarities among habitats and associated with specific vegetation types and seasons. Our research provides insights into temporal dynamics structuring butterfly–plant interactions across this forest disturbance spectrum, highlighting how habitat changes and seasonality shape these mutualistic communities in changing landscapes.