The role of cities in the history of schooling: A French paradox; (nineteenth-twentieth centuries)

The centralisation of French educational institutions is more in keeping with a political and social model than with reality. The construction of a complete school system under state supervision started early but has been a process of more than a century and a half long, which until 1880 mostly concerned the education of the elite (higher education and the lycées), and which left an important role to cities. Part of the educational action of the state has long been based on the idea that training courses should be adapted to the needs of cities and regions. Towns were entrusted with a great part of the state educational policies while influencing the private sector at the same time. But although their school policies had abiding features and their financial commitments increased considerably during the nineteenth century, cities have never been independent of the state. Moreover, a great many other local groups and individuals took part in school development. Urbanisation in France has been gradual, which accounts for the lack of interest in urban educational studies on the part of French historians. The shift of the past few years has given us a whole new insight into our knowledge of the history of schooling and has brought to light its institutional, material and financial factors - overlooked until now. One of these factors is the permanent threat of pupil shortage which weighed heavily on most nineteenth century public and private post-elementary schools. Until public education became free - in 1881 in primary schools and in the 1930s in secondary schools - all schools were basically self-supporting. Recruiting a sufficient number of pupils was both a crucial necessity and one of the driving forces behind the creation and the renewal of educational provision, especially when several schools were in competition. Free education did not bring about any profound changes: the growth of school attendance reduced the unitary cost of studies and remained a major criterion by which the value of school management was judged.