Carbon-based electrochemical biosensors as diagnostic platforms for connected decentralized healthcare

Electrochemical biosensors have the potential to provide rapid and inexpensive diagnostics while moving clinical testing from centralized labs to point-of-care (POC) applications. Conductive materials functionalized with bioreceptors that remain stable and functional for measurements in real-world conditions are essential for the fabrication of electrochemical biosensors, and carbon-based nanomaterials provide the electrical, chemical, structural, and mechanical features that make them suitable for POC devices. This review details the most recent developments in the use of carbon-based nanostructures, with a focus on one-dimensional carbon nanotubes, two-dimensional graphene, and graphene oxide, their interface with biological receptors, deposition on portable, flexible, and wearable substrates, and integration on low-cost platforms for detection of clinical biomarkers. The large-scale manufacturing and implementation of microneedles as implantable and electronic tattoos as wearable devices for on-skin diagnostics, and lab-on-mouth platforms as well as the interface with mobile technologies and their potential implementation for remote POC monitoring and decentralized healthcare through cloud processing and the internet of things (IoT) are discussed with examples of applications. The review concludes with an overview of the regulatory perspectives and future trends, challenges, and opportunities for commercialization and translation of these technologies from the research lab to practice, as useful diagnostic tools for remote monitoring of patient health conditions. Electrochemical biosensors: enabling rapid and cost-effective point-of-care (POC) diagnostics.