Geochemical characterization, its controlling factors, and comparison between the upstream and downstream segments of the Himalayan Satluj River basin, India

Satluj River Basin (SRB) has special economic significance, representing the country's most incredible hydro-structure with fresh water, a primary source of irrigation and hydroelectric power in Northern India. Therefore, SRB's geochemical characterization is vital for hydropower and agricultural sustainability. This study provides a preliminary characterization of the hydrogeochemical processes controlling the natural water evolution in SRB by observing the spatial variation and qualitative assessment of solute chemistry (major ions and trace/heavy elements) in the Satluj river, associated tributaries, and groundwater. Hydrochemical characteristics displayed the predominance of geogenic weathering processes with carbonates dissolution and silicate weathering as end members that could explain all the geochemical variability within the SRB. The results reveal that the chemical signature of the upstream segment is possibly influenced more by carbonate weathering than silicate weathering, and the trends reverse in the downstream section with the increasing influence of silicate weathering. Dissolved heavy metals (HMs) such as Mn, Cr, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, and Pb showed large fluctuations among upstream and downstream sampling sites, indicating diverse environmental conditions. Human health risk assessment (HHRA) studies revealed less or no potential noncarcinogenic via HMs, except for the downstream stretch of tributaries inferring increased non-cancerous risk. Moreover, the HHRA with HMs (Cr, As, Cd, and Pb) manifested high carcinogenic risks for adults and children across the SRB. The finding of this study could be the baseline dataset for assessing the future status, effective management, and better utilization of water resources of the SRB. [Display omitted] •Heavy metals in Satluj River basin (SRB) are within WHO acceptable limits.•HPI for Satluj main stream, tributaries, and associated groundwater found Mg2+ > Na+ > K+ and HCO3− > SO42− > Cl− > NO3−.