Micro- and nano-plastics in food systems: Distribution, combined toxicity with environmental contaminants, and removal strategies

[Display omitted] •MNPs in food derive from the environment, processing, and strenuous conditions.•The combined toxicity mechanisms of MNPs and co-pollutants are complex.•The novel removal methods of MNPs were proposed to help remove MNPs in beverages.•The technology of non-destructive MNPs removal from food is promising in the future. Micro or nano- plastics (MNPs) are considered as emerging pollutants gradually shifting from oceanosphere to terrestrial ecosystems. MNPs can enter the human body through the food chain, leading to serious health concerns. In recent years, increasing efforts have been devoted to preventing and removing MNPs from the environment and the food chains. In this review article, we have summarized the formation and composition of MNPs, as well as their effects on food production, processing, and consumption. Moreover, the detection and identification methods of MNPs in foods are highlighted. In addition to the health risks MNPs caused to organisms, the compound toxicity of MNPs and environmental contaminants are also important, which can be classified into four categories, including additive effect, synergistic effect, antagonistic effect, and potentiating effect. With this information at hand, we considered that the combined toxicity of MNPs and other pollutants are not a simple “1 + 1 = 2” effect. In the final section, we summarized the available technologies for removing MNPs, which will be useful to remove MNPs from food products thereby reducing the potential risks to human health.